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Wild Land News no 61, Autumn 2004

Forestry and Wild Land in Glen Affric

Article

Malcolm Wield and Alan Stevenson set out some of the radical changes which have been and continue to be made in the practice of forestry as applied on the national forest estate by Forestry Commission Scotland. The article explains and illustrates these changes using Glen Affric as a case study, and sets out how wild land and wild woods are being managed on a significant scale in key places in Scotland.

Introduction

Well, if you still think of forestry and foresters as a threat to wild land, then we've got to communicate more effectively for a start! There is a lot going on with forest management that you will be interested to hear about and which is definitely going in the right direction.

Maybe we should set off with some background on who we are, if only for clarity:

Forestry Commission Scotland

The Scottish Forestry Strategy published in 2000 sets out the Scottish Executive's forestry policy. The main means of delivery are through regulation, providing incentives, advising and through managing the national forest estate.

Forest Enterprise Scotland (FES) manage the national forest estate. FES is an Agency of FCS and was set up on 1 April 2004, following the Forestry Devolution Review.

Following persistent feedback and to avoid confusion to the general public, the name 'Forest Enterprise Scotland' is now retained as an internal distinction only. Outside the office, we always refer to ourselves as Forestry Commission Scotland!

Sustainable forestry and the Forest Planning Approach

Just as well that our understanding of wildness and natural processes is better than it was. And, in fairness, the need to grow timber as a strategic reserve for wartime has long since gone. Likewise the single-minded desire to see national forests as merely places to grow commercial tree crops in intensively managed plantations. Nowadays the buzzwords are sustainable forest management and multi benefit forestry.

These are not just meaningless bits of jargon. They have real purpose in the way we do things. This is best illustrated by the fact that GB was the first country in the world to have all of its national forests attain the Forest Stewardship Council's green label. This achievement led to the FC being awarded the prestigious global award - 'Gift to the Earth' by WWF in 2003.

Our forests are audited independently, by auditors skilled not just in forest management in a narrow timber production sense, but also in the environmental and social goods and services which forests can provide locally and nationally.

So, nowadays, 'foresters' may be found to have much more in common with 'environmentalists' than you might think. Of course, they are often one and the same thing - and hill walkers or climbers to boot. To many of them, a policy of more sensitive management or non-intervention, to let nature take its course and let's see what happens, is a comfortable philosophy. Working with what are often regarded as degraded ecosystems and cultural landscapes with many competing interests, does though, mean that a more interventionist approach is frequently required.

This requires hard facts on which to base their management decisions and to give their practise a justification. To 'do nothing' is often a brave decision, and often a hopeless one if it is just based on the 'feel good' factor alone.

Thankfully, time - that is to say experience - has brought with it better science and increasing knowledge. So, real hope for the future and real, tangible evidence already on the ground. And no better example than the Glen Affric National Nature Reserve.

Working on the legacy of the past in the Reserve gives few, magic-wand style, instant fixes. And over the past fifty odd years many lessons have been learned - some good and some bad. The non-native conifers that did not prosper and were difficult to harvest have almost all been cut down. The internal fences that served a purpose in managing deer to allow native trees to become established until the deer colonised all the enclosures have virtually all been taken away. Patience and the rifle in the right hands does allow natural regeneration to take place without fences, but is not popular with our sporting neighbours. Planting straight lines, squares and all other geometric shapes did get trees on the ground but has now been long overtaken by designing forests to fit the landform. In the Reserve, monocultures, larch fire-belts, fertilisers (native forests rarely, if ever, need them), pesticides (native woodlands live with their pests), herbicides and that curious operation formerly known as 'clearing scrub', deep draining, planting peat bogs and timber production through clearfelling only - are things of the past.

Few foresters are sad to see these changes, as they truly see the benefits of ultimately using a less intensive and much more natural approach. It seems the fruits of their labours are nowadays much more welcome with their stakeholders as a result. It feels good to see forests in wild places start to really be, well, proper forests.

If knowledge progresses to show us that wild places should be entirely open natural landscapes of peat then fair enough. No one will argue. I think we have a growing consensus that forests were never formed of 100% trees in the first place. Conversely, it seems sensible to think that wild places were never 100% open space everywhere either.

We know that climate has changed in the past and that it will always change. If the climate has changed we can never restore the past, so why try?

The Affric Management Plan does not seek restoration of 100% tree cover in the glen for this reason. True - it does quite positively aim to safeguard the core ancient woodland and quite understandably expects to allow burgeoning natural regeneration to grow. But in addition it contains a resolve to survey and assess further expansion of woodland on to currently treeless sites where it may be a preferred habitat type, with all the biodiversity that would bring.

What surveys reveal so far is that refugia and mosaic woodland patterns may be much more appropriate. And when you think about it, and if you accept that peatlands and woodlands in nature are not mutually exclusive - and both are very wild environments - then common sense leads you towards where the forest might find itself going.

All that said, it is important to have some form of vision or a strategic direction. Following a major review of native woodlands on the national forest estate in 1993, a new approach to their management was adopted. Over the past decade many millions of pounds have been invested in removing threats - mainly over-grazing, introduced conifers and rhododendrons. This has allowed natural regeneration to prosper. All of this has been achieved through the development of management plans in consultation with stakeholders and implemented through many and varied partnerships.

The Management Plan

In Glen Affric, the FDP has been extended to include plans for the formally designated areas (eg SSSI, cSAC and NNR) too. It is the place where the change of plantations to true forest is detailed and described, where actions and proposals are made for implementation on the ground. The plan describes the objectives for the whole of the National Nature Reserve and its adjacent, conventional forest areas and explains the guiding principles the foresters will use to achieve their goals.

As well as setting out how the trees will be managed it deals with the natural history, landscape and how people make use of the landscape for recreation and education. Glen Affric was one of the first native forests in Scotland to have a recreation plan which helped to improve the visitor experience whilst safeguarding sensitive and valuable habitats and wildlife.

In its series of Appendices, the plan lists all known biological species, archaeological and other records. Glen Affric is managed in a sustainable way and as a pioneering venture contributes greatly towards wider management of the the national forests. In addition it has helped to inform the way ahead for the restoration of native woodlands, not just in Scotland but also internationally - a fact witnessed by the many overseas scientists, foresters and ecologists who visit the Glen.

Purpose and Core Objectives in Glen Affric

In Glen Affric, almost 15,000 hectares have now been designated National Nature Reserve where 'primacy of nature' is recognised in every respect.

A fundamental plank of the plan is the way in which the core objectives of conservation, landscape, recreation, social responsibilities and timber are prioritised. The plan dovetails all of the core objectives with fine tolerance. 'Primacy of nature' has absolute superiority. All other objectives are sub-ordinate to this.

Forest structure of Glen Affric

Glen Affric is divided into 3 broad management zones. Core woodland, transitional habitat and open habitat.

The core woodland contains the ancient, relict pinewood - continuously present on this site since 1760 when it was first mapped. Many veteran trees survive. These old 'grannies' are the heart of the forest and will be allowed to go on indefinitely, until they decide they have reached the end of their 'live' period and change to a still rich eco-niche of decaying lignin. Even in this state they can go probably go on for maybe another 100 years before they collapse, perhaps even longer still in recumbent form as they slowly transform into the forest soil itself. This richness will be supported all around by every cohort of tree and age class imaginable, the trees themselves holding a life web of diversity that we have just started to measure and appreciate.

Core samples have confirmed the oldest 'grannies' so far to be over 350 years old. Interestingly, diameter is no faithful indicator of age - a 100 year old tree is quite likely to be the same size as one 3 times older.

In the relict woodland, fixing age also shows a clear lack of recruitment of young trees between about 250 years ago and 50 years ago. This coincides with the known intensification of grazing patterns in the mid 18th century, and the change to national forest in 1951. Since then, starting with the old 'Pine Reserve' on the south shore of Loch Beinn a Mheadhoin, conservation management has resulted in a steady recruitment of seedlings to the point where all the core woodland and much of the other zones are thriving once again.

Deadwood, that essential barometer of disturbance and a key native woodland habitat, is relatively scarce in Affric. The plan intends to arrest this by leaving all future deceased trees in situ. In the mean time, deadwood will be created in ex-plantation areas and through leaving felled non-native trees on the ground. In this way, the deadwood index will rise everywhere and eventually reach a more 'natural' level. The least disturbed pinewoods of Scandinavia and Europe have deadwood in tremendous abundance - you can hardly walk through the forest in places - something found nowhere in the UK. Affric is our least disturbed UK pinewood of all, which maybe just illustrates the general gulf that has appeared in our understanding of what's wild and what ain't. Not necessarily good news for unhindered rambling though.

In the open habitat zone, knowledge is to be improved through ground survey. This will determine what open habitats should be conserved for their own merit and what (if anything) should become natural woodland. Some places in this zone have surviving patches or even individual examples of trees that have been protected by exclosure fences, as well as some planting to provide a future seed source for tree species that have entirely disappeared. So far, indications are that future woodland in these areas should be sparse, fragmented and have a more scattered nature than elsewhere.

Affric's woodland is perhaps the best example of a diverse pinewood to be seen anywhere in the UK. This far west, the term 'pinewood' is a euphemism for a whole lot more than just pine. Original, genetically diverse, 'Caledonian' Scots pine trees certainly, but in places just as much birch. There is a preponderance of many more tree species too - alder, willows, hazel, juniper, even oak, wych elm and holly. And an abundance of open space where peat bogland prevails as mire, fen and wet heath. At higher altitude dry heath is more common and the Reserve has an extent of sub -alpine and montane flora. All deliciously tangled together as part of the rich mosaic that gets better and better as the years pass by.

Forest Redesign in Glen Affric

Forest design through landform analysis is the most robust technique foresters have developed to convert standard plantations (not native woods) to genuine forest. This can involve restructuring the layout and internal structure of the woodland. This process designs artificial uniformity out of the forest by removal and replacement of trees in phased periods, the introduction of more open space, the removal of too much shade from natural watercourses and the conservation of semi-natural habitats.

By spreading the felling periods over a long period, typically 30 years, diversity in the structure of the forest is guaranteed and permanent. In many of the conventional plantations around Glen Affric, this process is visibly well underway.

Not all of the more accessible parts will revert to wildness. The most accessible areas of conventional forest adjacent to the Reserve will be replanted with trees for timber. But to keep that in proportion, almost 15000 hectares of the plan area of over 17000 hectares will be allowed to naturalise.

Many of our plantation trees were grown on sites that are very wet and exposed to the wind. Our inheritance of even-age plantations means that some trees would blow over if we work too small scale, so we're sometimes levered into large areas of felling. When these areas regenerate or are replanted though, we accept all seeding native species or take the opportunity to mix the species, change the shape, reduce the size and introduce more permanent open space and light. New trees are planted to fit the landform much more closely and do not jar the eye in the way that the previous plantations did.

Very often, the original choice of species was not the best one for the site. Sometimes sites were planted that should have been left as more important habitat. Lodgepole pine is an example of this in many parts of Scotland, including Glen Affric. On some bogs, no trees should have been planted at all. This wild land is being restored too, for example the ridge running up to Creag Dubh from Loch an Eang in the centre of the Reserve, where extensive work has been done over the last few years.

Much of the cost of redesigning the forest is indirect - felling before maximum growth rate has finished or after it has slowed down for example. Choice of species will affect the volume recovered and the speed of rotation - a decision based on these factors alone will invariably lead to Sitka spruce. But because the cost is not measured in terms of actual cash, it is quite difficult to estimate what the loss really is.

Historically too, native woodland was removed or underplanted with faster growing conifers. Many of these sites were ancient woodland sites, as at Affric. Proposals in the plan will see all of these restored over time. A lot has been achieved already and recovery has begun. Here the cost is clear. In the Reserve area, £585,000 has already been spent on this operation alone, releasing 1834 hectares 'back into the wild'!

The analogy of making omelettes without breaking eggs comes to mind.

Removing non-native trees from a native woodland can't be done without some impact. If the trees are big enough to be harvested productively, then most of the tree can be taken away as timber. Sometimes, it is urgent to cut trees before they become productive so that ground vegetation can be saved before it is shaded out. This material can not be removed from site without massive cost and is usually left to recycle as compost into the soil. Although this is the best environmental resolution, there can be no doubt that foot access over such sites remains horrible for several years.

We know the material will decompose pretty rapidly in woodland terms - even Sitka spruce has all but vanished after 15 years. In the life of woodland that has been present for perhaps 5000 years, which developed naturally after the Ice Age, hardly any time at all. And yet still impenetrable in the short term. We acknowledge and respect this inconvenience and can only appeal to regarding this as the means to a very worthwhile end.

Fences and Access

The progressive acquisition programme that built up the Forestry Commission's estate in Glen Affric often led to a succession of fences for deer, rabbits and hares. Originally put up for the good reason of protecting young trees, many of the former perimeter fences often became 'internal', as acquisition boundaries merged. Obsolete as such, and also because the trees inside them successfully grew out of harm's way, none of these 'internal' fences will be replaced. Over 70km of them have already been removed, never to return. For the rest, it's only a matter of time and resources. Resources required are considerable, with £69,000 spent to date.

Foresters regard even their perimeter fences as undesirable and temporary. They consider them essential unless (until?) complete deer population range management can be improved to prevent woodland destruction. Only at that time will natural wild land without fences be a realistic aspiration for them. Whole range management frequently involves many land ownerships over a large area. Private land often supports recreational sporting activity and has no land management plan comparable to the forest management plan. Artificially high deer numbers for shooting clearly conflicts with habitat restoration of any sort. Commonality of purpose between owners and foresters remains a Holy Grail.

Things are getting better. The local Deer Management sub-Group have contracted a consultant to draft a collaborative plan for deer population. No easy task, but a draft has been prepared and the signs are good.

Where foresters must persist with fencing, the plan will make the best known assessment of access. Traditional walking routes are increasingly being provided with well-maintained stiles and lesser-known routes progressively respected in the same way. Foresters know they have some way to go with interest groups regarding fences at all, but are especially receptive to local and specific liaison and always seek a practical resolution, even if they at first do need to agree to differ on the principle. Actually, most people can see the difficulties being faced and become supportive, at least in the expectation of progress with the whole range population. Fair enough.

Forest Roads

To achieve much of this work, foresters must create or improve access for their operations and this invariably means forest roads. These are best regarded as a means to an end. Many places will of course continue as productive forests, producing your timber needs from a sustainable source. Perhaps better from here than from a tropical rain forest?

Foresters have a reputation as being 'doers' and by their own nature tend to be people attracted to organising things at a pretty vast scale. Not surprisingly they have over the years had a particular love affair with building water bound (ie unsurfaced) roads to produce the access they need for 40 tonne lorries to take their produce to market. They have become acknowledged experts in this field of such inhospitable terrain and climate. Even the British Army use the road designs and advice of forest civil engineers to carry their heavy armoured vehicles over exercise ranges.

It is unlikely that roading will be any more than minimal in the Reserve and very likely that some roads inserted into the Reserve area during the plantation expansion period will be removed, resources permitting. With the advent of much better definition of wild land, these roads may have a one-off purpose in truly wild places- to remove the climax output volume of the plantation period. Not such a quantum leap then, to see early ideas coming through to effectively de-road those areas afterwards. After all, why go to the expense of indefinitely maintaining an expensive and extensive road network?

Just such an access track put into to one of the remotest parts of Glen Affric some years ago has already been removed and re-covered with its original vegetation. Although the signs are still there, the plantation has gone and over time all trace will disappear, as the native species regenerate. More is certainly possible and the Glen na Ciche track in the western part of the Reserve has to be towards the top of the list. Unfortunately, project resources so far have not extended much beyond emergency restoration for habitat, but opportunities are always being sought. Cost estimates for complete removal are frightening - £40,000 per kilometre, but lower cost options could still be found - covering roads rather than removing them would be substantially cheaper, giving more gain for the £.

Wild Woodland?

The glen provides a good barometer for the extent of native woodland in the landscape. The mosaic of core, relict woodland around the shore of Loch Beinn a Mheadhoin is rightly claimed to be the least disturbed large pinewood of all and that it deserves its place in the landscape is beyond doubt. Despite its relatively undisturbed heritage though, it survives in a far from natural condition, as at least one period of exploitation in the early 18th century is well documented.

The exploitation itself was principally inspired by the laird trying to keep pace with the rising expectations of the early 1700's. The woods survived though, and for the last 50 years have thrived under benign management. The Forestry Commission purchased the largest part of the woods in 1951.

In sharp contrast lies Glen Cannich, immediately to the north and partly still within the Reserve boundary.. Not too dissimilar in terms of climate or aspect, but with subtle differences in fertility and soils. Dramatically different in terms of biological diversity and degradation, its contrasting social history gives a clue. Glen Cannich has large settlements, field systems and good examples of large corn drying kilns. Settlements sites are more widespread and are thought to be much older than their contemporaries in Glen Affric, indicating a much more hospitable and sustaining soil. The pattern of settlement and man's more intensive influence have endured through to the present day, unlike Affric.

It would not be a surprise to foresters that Cannich could be regarded as the wilder landscape nowadays, as its open nature is the most familiar and cherished by most people. But there is an awareness that our true impression of wildness in a landscape like Glen Cannich (and there are many others) should naturally include woodland to at least the Affric extent.

The perception of the 'Forest of Caledon' as a massive, unbroken, Amazonian type entity is clearly a myth.

Equally, there can be no doubt that the vast amount of our former native woodland has disappeared from much of the landscape. It seems laudable to suggest it should return - the trick is to decide where and how much?

Some Conclusions

There are many lessons to be learned from past experiences and also by adopting a more inclusive approach.

Glen Affric can act as both a test bed and also as a magical and inspirational place not only now but for generations to come.

There is much diversity in Scotland's' forests which can be extended and enhanced through enlightened and more sensitive management. There are many strings to the forest manager's bow, which can help this process - one size definitely does not fit all!

The timescales involved are long in forestry - much longer than in many other land uses or business activities. This requires both vision and patience in large measure, especially when native woods and remote wild places are concerned.

FCS is committed to working in partnerships with stakeholder groups who are able and willing to add value and help deliver the Scottish Forestry Strategy.

A good start has been made in the restoration of wild native woods in places such as Glen Affric but many challenges remain by way of unfinished business. These need to be taken into the future and tackled.

Malcolm Wield is Forest District Manager for Forestry Commission Scotland at Fort Augustus, covering Glen Affric, where he has been based since 1993. His career in forestry began with the Forestry Commission in 1978 and he has held posts in Argyll and Perthshire before moving north of the Great Glen. He is a member of the Institute of Chartered Foresters and enjoys hillwalking and river canoeing.

Alan Stevenson is the FCS Communities, recreation and tourism manager responsible for all aspects of social forestry across the national forest estate in Scotland. He is based in Inverness and has been involved from 1980 with a wide range of the Forestry Commission's business including some important developments such as native woodland restoration and management, improvements in deer management and also in silvicultural practice and timber harvesting and marketing.